Restoring the Taiga

Natural regeneration, or restoration, of young trees in the area devastated by the eruption of Mt. St. Helens. Photo taken in 1993, 13 years after the eruption.

In recent decades ecological restoration has become a burgeoning field of study and practice in conservation science, and broadly speaking it refers to projects which seek to return ecosystems that have been degraded or depleted by human activities to a more pristine, natural and undisturbed condition. However, these should be seen in the larger context of being human assistance for the natural process of restoration, which could be defined as 'the recovery of an ecosystem after large-scale disturbance', and is integral to the functioning of the biosphere - it has been occurring on the planet for millions of years. Examples of this include the recovery of forest species to the large area of the Gifford Pinchot National Forest (in Washington State, USA) which was devastated by the eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980, and the return of forest to much of the boreal zone at the end of the last Ice Age, about 10,000 years ago, when lichens, plants, trees and wildlife re-colonised the newly-exposed bare rock and earth, as the ice retreated.

Restoration should not be confused with afforestation or reforestation which, although they also aim to increase tree cover, often utilise non-native tree species and frequently lead to the establishment of ecologically-simplified plantations or monocultural tree farms which bear little resemblance to natural forests. True restoration, by contrast, seeks to bring back together all the elements of the original ecosystem and then to allow natural processes to take over again, as the guiding force which will determine the ongoing development of the restored ecosystem. As such, restoration represents a radical departure from the main thrust of modern day culture, which is directed towards the ever-increasing management and manipulation of ecosystems and Nature for human objectives. Restoration, by its very principles, is based on the premise that 'Nature knows best'. It is the literal practice of helping to re-weave the web of life - the interconnected and interdependent species, relationships and habitats which comprise an ecosystem - and which is being relentlessly fragmented and diminished around the world.

Boreal Restoration

With its long winters and short growing seasons, the boreal zone presents special challenges for restoration, and results will obviously be much slower in being achieved than in projects located in, for example, the tropics. As much of the boreal zone consists of forests, many of which have been, or currently are being, exploited and depleted, considerable effort will be required to bring about their restoration.

My own work since the mid-1980s has focussed on helping to bring about the restoration of one key boreal forest area - the native pinewoods of the Caledonian Forest in the Highlands of Scotland. By the late 20th century, this forest was reduced to 1% of its original extent, and survived mostly as scattered remnants of geriatric trees - old trees reaching the ends of their natural lives, with no young trees growing to take their places, because of overgrazing by excessive numbers of deer and sheep. It became obvious to many people that the forest would only continue to exist if urgent recovery measures were implemented, and since then numerous restoration projects have been initiated.

Although it will be on the order of 200 years (the time it will take for the restored forests to have mature Scots pines in them) before those projects come to full fruition, early indications and results are promising. The experiences gained to date by Trees for Life have led to the formulation of a list of key principles which guide our work. Stemming directly from the aforementioned premise that 'Nature knows best', these principles are neither exclusive to our work, nor comprehensive - rather they represent a work in progress, and will be added to over time.

Principles of Ecological Restoration Work from areas of strength - the areas where the ecosystem is closest to its natural condition. Pay particular attention to 'keystone' species - those species on which many others depend, and which are key components of the ecosystem. Utilise ecological processes, such as the initial use of pioneer species, and natural succession etc., to facilitate the restoration process. Mimic Nature wherever possible. Re-create ecological niches where they've been lost. Re-establish ecological linkages - reconnect the threads in the web of life. Control and/or remove introduced species. Remove or mitigate the limiting factors which prevent restoration from taking place naturally. Reintroduce species which are unlikely (or impossible) to return to the ecosystem by themselves. Let Nature do most of the work.

The Green Thumb Principle

In addition to those principles, there is another important element which has become very obvious through our work in Scotland. The quality of human love, as it is directly expressed through the practical work of restoration, has a tangible, positive effect on all living things to which it is directed. As such, carrying out restoration work with an open heart, and experiencing a spiritual connection with the land or forest, can accelerate the actual restoration process. This is what could be termed the 'Green Thumb' principle, as it is the same thing as that exemplified by people who have an ability to make their gardens or houseplants flourish with greater vitality and abundance - a facility which has led to such people being described as having a 'green thumb'.

Spider's web in Glen Affric National Nature Reserve, Scotland.

Taking part in restoration work can also have a profound effect on the people involved. Chief Seattle is reputed to have said, in a well-known quote, that "This we know. All things are connected like the blood which unites one family. All things are connected. Whatever befalls the Earth befalls the sons of the Earth. Man did not weave the web of life he is merely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web he does to himself."

Restoration is literally the work which helps to reweave the web of life, and as we help to heal an ecosystem, so we can experience a healing in ourselves, and of the human relationship with the rest of Nature. By taking part in restoration work, the practitioner becomes re-connected not only with the ecosystem which is being restored, but also with some of the most important qualities in human experience - qualities such as healing, hope, love and the ability to make a positive difference in the world. Taken together, these qualities can result in a profound spiritual connection with the land or forest which is being restored, and provide a powerful (and much-needed) answer to some of the critical problems in our society today, such as alienation from Nature, apathy and despair.

Challenges

There are a number of key issues and challenges which will need to be met if restoration is to be effective and successful in the boreal zone. For example, in some areas, such as much of Scandinavia, the tree cover is substantial, but human management practices are focussed primarily on maximising economic gain from these areas, with the result that there are few old growth forest areas, with their key habitats and unique species, remaining. The forests have been simplified and biologically impoverished, and consist mainly of relatively young trees.

For restoration to be effective in such situations, the goal of maximising economic productivity will have to be forgone and measures implemented to 'naturalise' the areas - to facilitate their development towards an old growth condition. Implicit in this too is that we need to adopt a long-term perspective, and be willing to let today's young stands of trees take the time (centuries in some cases) to evolve again to the stage at which they can provide the habitat for, for example, the old growth-dependent lichen species of the boreal forest.

To ensure that the boreal forests continue to thrive in a healthy state of dynamic balance, some key ecological processes will also need to be reinstated, or allowed to occur again. Examples of these include natural disturbance (fire, windthrow etc), predation by large carnivores, occasional large scale infestations by insects etc. These too pose considerable challenges in our modern mainstream culture, where predators are still routinely persecuted throughout much of the boreal zone, and where natural fires or insect outbreaks are viewed as damaging to 'our timber resource'. The critical question, then, is whether humanity in the 21st century is willing to step back from our culture's present headlong rush towards 'managing the entire planet', and instead to give some of the Earth back to the natural processes of evolution, so that some areas and ecosystems at least can become self-willed again. Because of its low human population density, harsh climate and relatively intact forests, the boreal zone offers one of the best opportunities in the world to achieve this goal. The existing restoration projects in the region can therefore be seen as the pioneers and forerunners for a much more ambitious positive vision for the future - Restoring the Earth.

Alan Watson Featherstone

This article was written for Taiga News, the newsletter of the Taiga Rescue Network, and was featured in Issue 47, the Summer 2004 edition.