Our Once and Future Fauna
Until relatively recently, Britain had thriving populations of wolves, beavers, lynx, wild boar and other large mammals. Their loss has meant a severe degradation of our native ecosystems. Whilst there is a strong case for species reintroductions, there are many important ecological and socio-economic considerations around reintroductions.
Many people are surprised to learn that until relatively recently, Britain had thriving populations of wolves, beavers, lynx, wild boar and other large mammals. These animals have been driven to extinction by our ancestors for a variety of reasons. While it is easy to point a finger of blame, it is worth remembering that our ancestors themselves were trying to make a living in challenging conditions, and were in some cases guided by superstitions, which while being factually inaccurate, were nonetheless very real in their world-view. Whatever the case, the legacy has been the loss of some very charismatic species, and a severe degradation of our native ecosystems.
These animals have no way of returning to this island without our assistance, and for decades (centuries in some cases) there have been discussions about the possibility of reintroducing various species to our shores. In fact the sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) has already been returned to Scotland and red kite (Milvus milvus) to Scotland and England, and lessons can be learned from these reintroductions.
Below is an overview of some current thinking surrounding reintroductions, looking at why they are being considered at all, and also what the key issues are concerning a number of the main candidates.
Why reintroductions?
If an animal has been extirpated from our countryside, why consider returning it at all? Is there space? Is it safe? One of the key arguments in favour of reintroductions is ecological integrity and wholeness. As well see below, various large animals play a key role in maintaining healthy ecosystems, for example by regulating herbivore numbers, promoting diverse woodland structure, or creating wetland habitats.
There is also an ethical case for reintroductions: many would argue that since our species is responsible for the demise of some of our native fauna, we have an obligation to redress the balance. In addition, under the European Unions Habitats and Species Directive, Member States have a duty to investigate the feasibility and desirability of returning certain missing species.
In some cases there may be benefits to local economies through ecotourism, or, more controversially, through hunting. Others make the case that there are deep-seated psychological or spiritual benefits, in terms of restoring a sense of wholeness or wildness to the land and ourselves.
Unsurprisingly, these ideas can be very contentious, and there is a broad spectrum of viewpoints. At Trees for Life, we advocate the restoration of complete ecosystems, which ultimately includes the return of all their component species. It must be added that we recognise there are some very real challenges to address, and that appropriate timing and a cooperative approach are crucial.
However, some people believe that our present day countryside has changed too much to accommodate certain large mammals, or are understandably concerned about public safety, or conflicts with other land uses, particularly farming and game interests. Even some proponents of reintroductions may advocate some species and not others, or talk about very different timescales. Here we will look at the ecology and some of the issues surrounding the key species in question.
Beaver
 European beaver feeding on aspen
at the Aigas Field Studies Centre in Strathglass.
 The European beaver will fell broadleaved trees to feed on in winter, and also for building its lodge and dams.
 Wild boar sow inside a fenced enclosure on the Alladale Estate.
 Wolf
 Female lynx in Norway, using a birch tree as a scratching post.
 Fish such as salmon are relished by bears
 Elk or moose have probably been missing in Scotland since about 1,500 BC. |
The European beaver (Castor fiber) is a large aquatic rodent. It existed in Britain until at least the early sixteenth century, and it should be noted that this is an entirely different species to the Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis). It was hunted to extinction mainly for its fur, and for an oil called castoreum, which was used as medicine.
The beaver is entirely herbivorous. Ecologists agree that it can have a very beneficial effect on woodland and wetland habitats and it is what is known as a keystone species in aquatic ecosystems. This means that its presence and behaviour have knock-on effects that have major benefits for other parts of the ecosystem. For example, by cutting down selected broadleaved trees (they rarely fell conifers) to feed on the bark and foliage, beavers encourage trees to coppice (send up new growth from the stump). Coppicing allows light to the forest floor, which benefits flowers and insects, and creates low shrubby growth that is good for certain nesting birds. Their dams also create valuable wetland habitats that are used by an impressive array of wildlife, from frogs (Rana temporaria) and fish to otters (Lutra lutra) and dragonflies.
In spring 2009, a trial beaver reintroduction, managed by the Scottish Wildlife Trust and the Royal Zoological Society for Scotland, will begin at Knapdale in Argyll. If at the end of the five year trial, there are no insurmountable problems, a licence for a broader reintroduction could be applied for.
Concerns have been expressed about the possible effects of beavers on fishing interests, but these are unfounded. Beavers do not eat fish at all and evidence from Norway shows that beaver dams do not have a negative effect on salmon, which are more than capable of leaping over them.
Other concerns include the possibility of flooding areas of farmland, but as the beaver has already been reintroduced to more than 24 other European countries, there is ample evidence to show that these issues are easily overcome, if they do occur. If all goes as hoped, it will be the first successful reintroduction of a mammal to Britain.
Wild Boar
The wild boar (Sus scrofa) is the ancestor of our domestic pig, and was hunted to extinction in Scotland around 400 years ago. Its decline was also linked to loss of woodland cover.
It is an omnivorous forest dwelling animal that feeds primarily by rooting in the soil for roots, grubs, fungi, carrion etc. This behaviour plays an important role in the forest ecosystem, as it creates a seed bed for trees and other plants to germinate in, as well as exposing food for birds to eat.
There are in fact well-established populations of wild boar in the south of England, as a result of escapes from enclosures. In spite of having a ferocious reputation, wild boar are very wary of humans, and will try and avoid interactions with people if possible. In rare cases they have been known to attack humans or dogs, particularly if a sow with her young is disturbed.
There are also concerns about impacts on cereal crops, and the potential of spreading disease to domestic pigs. Lessons could be learned from the many European countries where people are accustomed to living with wild boar. Without a natural predator, controlling their numbers would be essential, and could even provide an income for farmers.
Wolf
The wolf (Canis lupus) is the top predator across much of the northern hemisphere. It was hunted to extinction in Scotland around the middle of the eighteenth century and was seen as a major competitor as it would sometimes prey on livestock such as sheep.
Ecologically, the wolf plays a crucial role in influencing the activities of herbivores, particularly the red deer (Cervus elaphus). While it would have some impact on their numbers, a key effect would be in influencing the behaviour of herbivores through disturbing them during unsuccessful hunting attempts (up to 90% of attempted kills are unsuccessful). Wolves would prevent deer from feeding in an area for too long, thereby helping the regeneration of woodland and other habitats that have been degraded by a long history of overgrazing.
There is sufficient habitat and prey for wolves in Scotland, and contrary to fairy tales, they are a negligible threat to humans. However they do prey on livestock and domestic dogs, and questions have been raised about whether those conflicts would be insurmountable, and whether the public would be willing or able to share the land with this predator. If wolves were ever reintroduced, a major consideration would be how farming could coexist with them. In other parts of Europe, where farmers are accustomed to living with wolves, methods such as shepherding and the use of guard dogs are employed.
Compensation schemes are another option. In Norway, farmers are compensated for losses, although this has not proved to be as effective as Swedens approach where farmers are actually paid for having predators on their land, which seems to be more readily embraced. At present, sheep farming is in considerable decline in the Highlands, and it remains to be seen how much this would alter the situation.
Lynx
The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) was present in North Yorkshire until at least the 6th century AD, and became extinct through persecution, and the loss of habitat and prey. It is mainly a predator of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), the population of which is estimated as having increased to 400,000 in Scotland. Like the wolf, the lynxs influence on its prey would help the recovery of native habitats, as well as reducing deer-induced damage to forestry.
The lynx poses no threat to humans and it is thought that in Scotland its impacts on livestock would be very minimal, since lynx largely remain within woodland, and sheep are grazed on open ground. Sheep adjacent to woodland may be at more risk, however, but again various management strategies or compensation schemes would be helpful. Studies have shown that there is sufficient prey and habitat for lynx in Scotland, as they would thrive in conifer plantations as well as native forest.
In the Harz Mountains of Germany, lynx that were reintroduced in 2000 have had a positive impact on tourism, and images of the lynx are used to market the area, and it has been argued that its presence could generate significant revenue for Scotlands rural economy. There are many who do not advocate wolf reintroduction, who still see the lynx as a very realistic candidate.
Bear
The brown bear (Ursus arctos) was hunted to extinction in Britain by around 500 AD. It is an omnivore, and although it will eat animals such as deer, it is not a major predator. In Canada bears catch salmon and often leave the remains in the forest, thereby playing a valuable role in the cycling of nutrients. It is possible that Scotlands bears fulfilled a similar function in our forests in the past.
Of all the reintroduction candidates, the bear would be the most challenging. There is not a sufficient amount of good quality habitat for bears at present, and they could pose a significant threat to human safety. It is possible to learn ways to minimise conflicts and dangers (such awareness is common knowledge in parts of Europe and North America), but it would take time to educate the public, and it would take even longer to restore suitable habitat. To many, however, the presence of bears would bring both a sense of wholeness and wildness to the forest environment.
Elk or moose
The elk (Alces alces), which, confusingly, is known as moose in North America (where red deer are called elk!), was also extirpated by humans, although the last fossil record dates from around 4,000 years ago. It often browses on aquatic vegetation, and as with other herbivores, it has a valuable influence on creating diverse structure within the forest. It also prevents pools from becoming overgrown, and can thus benefit aquatic wildlife. However at present there are already overgrazing problems resulting from large numbers of red deer in Scotland, so it may be wise to wait until predators are restored before reintroducing this charismatic herbivore.
Lessons from other reintroductions
We are fortunate that there have already been reintroductions of a range of species in Europe, and also the reintroductions of red kites and sea eagles in Britain, from which we can learn valuable lessons.
Some of the key lessons include the fact that local communities need to be involved from the very start of any projects. Initiatives in Europe in which people werent properly consulted have had problems with hostility from local people who felt disenfranchised.
Good quality information is also essential, making sure that the facts about particular species are presented, so that we can make clear decisions based on good science.
Obviously it is important that the factor that caused the extirpation in the first place is no longer present, and this is stated in the Habitats and Species Directive. However, it is inevitable that there will be times when the activities of reintroduced animals come into conflict with humans. While every effort should be made to minimise such situations, we would need to accept that particular animals that were causing a problem (eg repeatedly killing livestock) may need to be relocated or humanely killed.
Some opponents of reintroductions argue that there are already plenty of species requiring urgent conservation action. Shouldnt we be putting money into supporting those we have already?
Others would point out that restoring keystone species can have such beneficial effects on biodiversity (for example the positive influence of beavers on restoring and maintaining aquatic ecosystems), that reintroductions could reduce the need for species-specific management and be more cost-effective in the long run.
Trees for Life believes that the reintroduction of our missing species to selected areas would be possible and desirable. Indeed it is vital for restoring the land to ecological health. However the timescales and obstacles to be overcome are very varied. Species such as the beaver may be with us very soon, whereas the wolf could be much further down the line. We need very open and inclusive discussion that involves local people, farmers and all the other stakeholders.
It is worth bearing in mind that we encourage those living in India, Africa and elsewhere to conserve and live alongside their large animals, many of which are far more challenging to coexist with than any of those discussed above. Would we have more credibility if we were prepared to allow a little more wildness into our own lives?
Dan Puplett
Sources
Breitenmoser, U. and Arx, M.V. (2004) Reintroduced lynx in Europe: their distribution and problems. ECOS 3 (4), 64-68.
Cairns, P. and Hamblin, M. (2007) Tooth and Claw: living alongside Britains predators. Whittles Publishing: Dunbeath.
Gaywood, M, Batty, D. and Galbraith, C. (2008) Reintroducing the European Beaver in Britain. British Wildlife 19 (6) 381-391.
Hetherington, D. A., Lord, T. C. and Jacobi, R. M. (2005). New evidence for the occurrence of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in medieval Britain. Journal of Quaternary Science, Vol 21, 3-8.
Hetherington, D. (2006) The lynx in Britains past, present and future. ECOS 27 (1), 66-74.
Taylor, P. (2005) Beyond Conservation. Earthscan: London
Relevant links
Scottish Wildlife Trust beaver reintroduction page
Related Pages
- Our Once and Future Fauna
- Wild, Free and Coming Back?: A two-day conference hosted by the Wildland Network and Trees for Life, 16 & 17 September 2008
- Postcard from Slovakia, from Caledonia Wild! Summer 2009
- Postcard from Transylvania, from Caledonia Wild! Winter 2007
- Return of the Wild by Roy Dennis
- The Meaning and Relevance of Rewilding in Scotland (abstract of MSc dissertation)
Return to Missing Species of the Caledonian Forest